Table of Contents

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	Introduction
	Body
	Conclusion
	Article
	Writing Tips
	Choosing the Topic
	Define your Purpose
	Brainstorm Subject of Interest
	Evaluate each Potential Topic
	Narrowing Down The Topic
	Organizing The Essay
	Organizing The Paragraph
	Using Active Verbs
	Style Guide
	Abbreviations and Acronyms
	Addresses
	Capitalization
	Myths
	Numbers
	Plurals
	Possessives
	Punctuation

Easy Writing

Why Should Your Essay Contain A Thesis Statement?

	to test your ideas by distilling them into a sentence or two
	to better organize and develop your argument
	to provide your reader with a "guide" to your argument

In general, your thesis statement will accomplish these goals if you think of the thesis as the answer to the question your paper explores.

A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.

Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:

There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.

This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase "negative and positive" aspects" are vague.

Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.

This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.

2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.

Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:

My family is an extended family.

This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won't be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.

While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.

This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.

3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.

Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:

Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.

This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can't decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become clearer. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:

Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like "because," "since," "so," "although," "unless," and "however."

4. A strong thesis statement is specific.

A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you write a paper on hunger, you might say:

World hunger has many causes and effects.

This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, "world hunger" can't be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:

Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.

This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.

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Introduction

The introduction should start with a general discussion of your subject and lead to a very specific statement of your main point, or thesis. Sometimes an essay begins with a "grabber," such as a challenging claim, or surprising story to catch a reader's attention. The thesis should tell in one (or at most two) sentence(s), what your overall point or argument is, and briefly, what your main body paragraphs will be about.

For example, in an essay about the importance of airbags in cars, the introduction might start with some information about car accidents and survival rates. It might also have a grabber about someone who survived a terrible accident because of an airbag. The thesis would briefly state the main reasons for recommending airbags, and each reason would be discussed in the main body of the essay.

The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's attention and give him/her an idea of the essay's focus.

1.      Begin with an attention grabber. The attention grabber you use is up to you, but here are some ideas:

o        Startling information
This information must be true and verifiable, and it doesn't need to be totally new to your readers. It could simply be a pertinent fact that explicitly illustrates the point you wish to make.
If you use a piece of startling information, follow it with a sentence or two of elaboration.

o        Anecdote
An anecdote is a story that illustrates a point. Be sure your anecdote is short, to the point, and relevant to your topic. This can be a very effective opener for your essay, but use it carefully.

o        Dialogue
An appropriate dialogue does not have to identify the speakers, but the reader must understand the point you are trying to convey. Use only two or three exchanges between speakers to make your point.
Follow dialogue with a sentence or two of elaboration.

o        Summary Information
A few sentences explaining your topic in general terms can lead the reader gently to your thesis. Each sentence should become gradually more specific, until you reach your thesis.

2.      If the attention grabber was only a sentence or two, add one or two more sentences that will lead the reader from your opening to your thesis statement.

3.      Finish the paragraph with your thesis statement.

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Body

The body paragraphs will explain your essay's topic. Each of the main ideas that you listed in your outline will become a paragraph in your essay. If your outline contained three main ideas, you will have three body paragraphs. Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form.

If your essay topic is a new university in your hometown, one of your main ideas may be "population growth of town" you might say this:

The new university will cause a boom in the population of Fort Myers.

Build on your paragraph by including each of the supporting ideas from your outline In the body of the essay, all the preparation up to this point comes to fruition. The topic you have chosen must now be explained, described, or argued.

Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure.

1.      Start by writing down one of your main ideas, in sentence form. If your main idea is "reduces freeway congestion," you might say this: Public transportation reduces freeway congestion.

2.      Next, write down each of your supporting points for that main idea, but leave four or five lines in between each point.

3.      In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point. Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion.
Supporting Point
Commuters appreciate the cost savings of taking public transportation rather than driving.
Elaboration
Less driving time means less maintenance expense, such as oil changes.
Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well. In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of riding public transportation.

4.      If you wish, include a summary sentence for each paragraph. This is not generally needed, however, and such sentences have a tendency to sound stilted, so be cautious about using them.

Each main body paragraph will focus on a single idea, reason, or example that supports your thesis. Each paragraph will have a clear topic sentence (a mini thesis that states the main idea of the paragraph). You should try to use details and specific examples to make your ideas clear and convincing.

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Conclusion

The conclusion serves to give the reader closure, summing up the essay's points or providing a final viewpoint about the topic.

The conclusion should consist of three or four convincing sentences. Clearly review the main points, being careful not to restate them exactly, or briefly describe your opinion about the topic.

Even an anecdote can end your essay in a useful way.

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Writing Guidance

Articles

We have gathered a number of recent articles and publication that might be of interest for you. The articles are concerned with different issues of education in Libya, resent changes, cheating, college life, writing styles, tips, graduation, and studying skills. The articles are written by independent writes and from different perspectives of view. We are constantly looking for the most interesting articles and updating the site.

	The Netgeneration: The Internet as classroom and community
	11 Rules of Writing

 

Writing Tips

We are offering you some tips, which can be very helpful to get started with any kind of writing and successfully complete an essay. Our tips can help you be concise and easily convey your thoughts and ideas to any kind of audience. They also can be helpful to choose the topic, organize paragraphs and ideas, find supporting evidence and appropriate words. The following tips can be used for any kind of academic writing.

 

Choosing The Topic

If you have not been assigned a topic, then the whole world lies before you. Sometimes that seems to make the task of starting even more intimidating. Actually, this means that you are free to choose a topic of interest to you, which will often make your essay a stronger one.

Define Your Purpose

The first thing you must do is to think about the purpose of the essay you must write. Is your purpose to persuade people to believe as you do, to explain to people how to complete a particular task, to educate people about some person, place, thing or idea, or something else entirely? Whatever topic you choose must fit that purpose.

Brainstorm Subjects of Interest

Once you have determined the purpose of your essay, write down some subjects that interest you. No matter what the purpose of your essay is, an endless number of topics will be suitable.

If you have trouble thinking of subjects, start by looking around you. Is there anything in your surroundings that interests you? Think about your life. What occupies most of your time? That might make for a good topic. Don't evaluate the subjects yet; just write down anything that springs to mind.

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Evaluate Each Potential Topic

If you can think of at least a few topics that would be appropriate, you must simply consider each one individually. Think about how you feel about that topic. If you must educate, be sure it is a subject about which you are particularly well informed. If you must persuade, be sure it is a subject about which you are at least moderately passionate. Of course, the most important factor in choosing a topic is the number of ideas you have about that topic.

Even if none of the subjects you thought of seem particularly appealing, try just choosing one to work with. It may turn out to be a better topic than you at first thought.

Before you are ready to move on in the essay-writing process, look one more time at the topic you have selected. Think about the type of paper you are expected to produce. Should it be a general overview, or a specific analysis of the topic? If it should be an overview, then you are probably ready to move to the next step. If it should be a specific analysis, make sure your topic is fairly specific. If it is too general, you must choose a narrower subtopic to discuss.

For example, the topic "KENYA" is a general one. If your objective is to write an overview, this topic is suitable. If your objective is to write a specific analysis, this topic is too general. You must narrow it to something like "Politics in Kenya" or "Kenya's Culture."

Once you have determined that your topic will be suitable, you can move on.

Here are a few guidelines to help you through the process:

1.      Pick a topic that you are interested in. You will express yourself with more clarity and insight if you are interested in the topic that you are writing about.

2.      You should pick a topic based on the assigned texts that you understood. While writing your essay, the majority of your energy will be focused on explaining and supporting your individual perspective and thesis, so it is important that you understand and feel comfortable talking about the primary (and possibly secondary) material that will form the basis of your essay.

3.      Select a topic that is challenging and thought provoking. You want to write about a topic that is interesting to you. Your essay should reflect your own individual and unique perspective on your chosen topic. It should not be a mere restatement of the already existing academic ideas on the topic. So, you should choose a topic that challenges you and allows you room to express yourself in relation to the primary source text, and the secondary sources (if they are applicable to your assignment).

4.      Your topic should be specific enough that you can form an opinion about it, but general enough that you can find enough information to support your perspective and write a comprehensive and substantial essay.

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Narrowing Down The Topic

In narrowing down your topic, you should consider the following ideas:

1.      Identify and define the main elements of the topic that you have chosen and look at the different ways that they can be applied to the primary material of your essay.

2.      Pay attention to the length that the professor has assigned for the essay. The length can dictate the amount of information that you will be able to fit into your paper. The length will also dictate the number of body parts that you will be able to use to support your thesis. As a general rule, the shorter the essay, the more limited and precise the topic will be. The longer the essay, the more space you will have to explore your topic and its implications and complexity.

3.      In narrowing down your topic, pay attention to the specific aspects of the topic that are addressed within the primary text(s) for your essay and within class discussion. This will give you an indication of the specific ways that you can write about your source material. Professors are usually looking for a specific topic that addresses one of the central ideas of the material that you are studying. Choose the specific aspect that you feel runs through as much of the text as possible. This will afford you a topic that can be developed through the course of the primary source(s) to present your reading audience with a clearer view of the text or the ideas that dominate the material.

4.      If you have any doubts about how you can find a specific aspect to address within the assigned topics, or if you are unsure as to which aspect you should focus on, do not hesitate to contact your professor for guidance. Often, this can save you a great deal of wasted effort and can help to focus your attention on a specific avenue for researching your topic.

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Organizing The Essay

Introductory Paragraph

Introductory paragraph consists of general points or attention grabbing details leading to the main idea. For instance, there are several means that effective writers use to "hook" their readers: beginning with an amusing or interesting anecdote, beginning with a question, beginning with a quotation, and beginning with a startling or paradoxical statement. The main idea is often written at the end of this paragraph in a thesis statement, which may also contain three or more reasons (written very succinctly) for supporting this main idea. Each of these reasons should be elaborated on in the body paragraphs that follow. Note: A thesis statement does not always come at the end of the introductory paragraph--some essays have the very first sentence as the thesis statement.

Body Paragraph #1

Body Paragraph #1 often begins with a transition word or words like "First" or "The first of these reasons" and gives examples and/or details relating to the first supporting reason.

Body Paragraph #2

Body Paragraph #2 often begins with a transition word or words like "Next" or "Second" or "Another reason" or "The second of these reasons" and gives examples and/or details relating to the second supporting reason.

Body Paragraph #3

This often begins with a transition word or words like "Finally" or "Last" or "The final reason" and gives examples and/or details relating to the third supporting reason (which is often the strongest of the three supporting reasons).

Concluding Paragraph

This paragraph may begin with "In conclusion" or "To conclude" (although some markers find these somewhat mundane) or "Clearly" and often restates the thesis statement in different words. It may move from there to a general comment about life, or to a final important point, or to a suggestion about future action that may be needed. Some writers like to end with a relevant quotation, or end with a question, or end with a prediction or warning.

Another concluding technique is to end with some idea or detail from the beginning of the essay (thus bringing this idea full circle). Yet another means of concluding is to end with an allusion to a historical or mythological figure or event.

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Organizing The Paragraph

Make sure that each sentence flows logically. The traditional way to do this when writing an essay is to use connecting words or phrases, often conjunctions (linking words) such as "although", "because", "so", "moreover", or "therefore". In this way, you build your logic and arguments. These connections come in simple and complex forms.

Simple connections

also, although, and, as, because, but, despite, first, however, if, next, now, second, then, therefore, third, until

Although we sometimes need words to show the logic and connection between sentences and paragraphs, many connecting words make your style more complex and academic than necessary.

Complex connections

accordingly, as you are aware, consequently, for this reason, furthermore, hence, in addition, inasmuch as, likewise, more specifically, moreover, nevertheless, nonetheless

Use the connections to make sure your reader can follow the flow of information, ideas and arguments within sentences, from sentence to sentence and between paragraphs. But don't let too many connections creep into your writing and keep to the simple ones recommended.

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Using Active Verbs

Using active verbs is essential if you want to write with a direct authoritative style. Instead of using the impersonal passive verbs and third person viewpoint, you should write with strong, active verbs.

Almost every authority on writing encourages you to use active verbs. Here's some typical advice to authors publishing research papers for The American Society for Testing Materials.

"As most everyone has agreed for some time now, use the third person in a paper not only adds nothing to scientific objectivity, it renders the paper gutless and lifeless ... Scientists of the 19th century such as Darwin and Huxley wrote sensibly and clearly in the first person and turned out some very respectable prose. Let us begin anew ... use active verbs."

Look at these examples:

Passive:

An improvement in quality has been made leading to the decision being taken to raise the standard test so a higher mark means the same success rate being accepted. (29 words)

Active:

As quality improved, the standard test rose, leading to a higher standard mark to gain the same acceptable success rate. (20 words)

Notice the passive example sounds academic but takes extra nine words to say the same information. It is no more objective than the alternative with active verbs. Although we naturally speak with active verbs, even when discussing academic subjects, the traditional academic writing style litters writing with unnecessary passive verbs. Any sentence can be either active or passive. It is your choice as the author.

Whatever the subject of the essay, you can write with active verbs to make your writing style more direct, clear and forceful. If there's one piece of advice on writing style you should follow, it's to use active verbs throughout your essays.

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Style Guide

In our free online style guide we are trying to address all the questions concerning abbreviations, addresses, capitalization, English grammar, Internet terminology, numbers, plurals, possessives, punctuation, spelling, and word usage.

Our style guide also focuses on U.S. standards for spelling, punctuation, definitions, usage, style and grammar. We frequently enhance the style guide with new or improved entries.

This guide can help you be clear, concise, correct, and consistent in your use of the written word. It also provides clear alternatives to long, pompous or bureaucratic words and phrases. Use this guide for help in writing articles, books, brochures, correspondence, essays, fliers, newsletters, reports, Web pages and other documents.

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

Use abbreviations and acronyms only when they will help your readers by making written text simpler and less cumbersome. Do not use an abbreviation or acronym that would confuse your readers, that they would not recognize quickly. When in doubt, spell it out. (An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or phrase, like Mr. and Corp.; an acronym is an abbreviation formed from the first letter or letters of a series of words, like AIDS, Garbl, NAACP and radar.)

Always spell out terms, common names and the complete proper names of organizations, projects, programs or documents the first time you use them, and repeat the complete term or name at the beginning of sections in longer documents. Although the abbreviation or acronym is capitalized for some common or generic nouns and terms, lowercase the spelled-out form.

If an abbreviation or acronym of the term or name would not be clear on second reference, avoid using it. Instead, use a shortened version of the name or a generic word, such as the agency, the committee, the department or the company.

If using unfamiliar abbreviations and acronyms is necessary, follow the complete name with the shortened form set off between commas: The Endangered Species Act, or ESA, affects many projects. Later references could use the abbreviation, a shortened version of the name or a generic word.

Whenever possible, avoid following the name of an organization, project or program with an abbreviation or acronym in parentheses or set off by dashes: Endangered Species Act (ESA).

Do not provide an abbreviation after spelling out a term if the abbreviation isn't used elsewhere in the document.

Omit periods in most abbreviations and acronyms unless the result would spell an unrelated word. Use only one period when a sentences ends with an abbreviation that includes periods.

Don't use the before acronyms pronounced as words instead of letter by letter: OSHA, CAD. With other abbreviations, apply the same rules for the full name and the shortened version: the ESA, the state DOT, IBM. When placing either a or an before an abbreviation or acronym, determine how it would sound when spoken; see a, an, the entry above.

To form most common plural abbreviations, add an s: ABCs, CDs, chaps., Drs., IOUs, TVs, UFOs. Sometimes, an apostrophe may go before the s: when the abbreviation has internal periods (M.A.'s, M.B.A.'s, Ph.D.'s), when the abbreviation is composed of lowercase letters (pdf's), when the abbreviation is a single letter (A's, S's) and when the abbreviation would be confusing if only the s were added (OWS's instead of OWSs). In the last example, if your readers might misinterpret an abbreviation like OWS's as showing possession, leave out the apostrophe.

Avoid using e.g., i.e.; et al.; etc.

Many abbreviations may be used in charts, tables and certain types of technical writing.

If the meaning is clear, abbreviations may be used in headlines and headings.

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Addresses

Always use numerals for an address number: She lived at 456 N.E. 81st St.

Spell out and capitalize First through Ninth when used as a street name: The bus drove down Fourth Avenue South. Use numerals with two letters for 10th and above: She lived on 81st Street.

Abbreviate compass points (N.W., S., etc.; all caps with periods) used to show directional ends of a street or quadrants of a city in a numbered address: The building is at 543 S.W. 32nd St. The periods for abbreviated compass points in numbered addresses may be omitted in correspondence, maps, charts and tables.

Abbreviate only avenue, boulevard and street as Ave., Blvd. and St. in a numbered address: Main Street Center is at 103 Main St.

Spell out and capitalize words such as alley, drive, road, way and terrace when part of an address or name: He worked on Burton Road Northwest and lived at 200 Burton Road N.W. Lowercase them when used alone or in plural forms: The crew will repave Cavanaugh and Ballinger roads.

When first used without a number, always spell out and capitalize the full name of a street, avenue, road or boulevard: He lived on Southwest Harbor Boulevard. Also spell out compass points (South, Northwest, etc.) if omitting the number: The building is on Southwest 32nd Street.

If the location is clear, common names (Avenue, Street, etc.) and compass points (East, Southwest, etc.) may be left off in later references.

Lowercase street, avenue, boulevard or road and the compass point when using the plural form: The shopping center is between 35th and 37th avenues southwest on Southwest 10th Street. But don't lowercase those words when the form is not plural: You can catch a bus on Second or Third Avenue. Also, lowercase and spell out street, avenue, boulevard or road when used alone: He drove down the tree-lined boulevard.

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Capitalization

Avoid unnecessary capitalization. Use capital letters to begin proper nouns, sentences, headings and the important words in publication titles. Proper nouns are the particular names of people, places and things. Excessive capitalization for other purposes distracts the reader and hinders reading. Do not capitalize the first letter of a word (or words in a phrase) simply to highlight it or to express its importance.

Check this or another style manual for capitalization of a particular word or type of word. If not listed there, check your dictionary. And if still in doubt, lowercase.

Except for acronyms and some abbreviations, avoid capitalizing all the letters in a word, sentence, heading, headline or phrase--including brand names, logos and trademarks. If necessary for emphasis, try other typographical uses, such as boldfacing, italics, colour, type size and different but complementary typefaces. Also see headlines, headings; underlining.

Capitalization of abbreviations and acronyms varies. For guidance, see abbreviations and acronyms, entries in this style guide for specific words and terms, and your dictionary. Although the abbreviation or acronym is capitalized for some common or generic nouns and terms, lowercase the spelled-out form; for example, see environmental impact statement.

Capitalize the first word of every sentence, heading and headline, including quoted statements and direct questions. Even if a person, business or organization begins its name with a lowercase letter, capitalize the first letter of the name at the beginning of sentences, headings and headlines: Gary de Shazo won the design award. De Shazo expressed appreciation for the support of his colleagues.

Capitalize proper nouns that specifically name a person, place or thing, unless a person, business or organization requests a lowercase first letter. If a name begins with a lowercase letter, capitalize the first letter of the name at the beginning of sentences and headlines.

Capitalize common nouns such as party, river and street when they are an integral part of the full name for a person, place or thing: Ballinger Street, Rheinard River, Democratic Party, Puget Sound. Lowercase these common nouns when they stand alone in later references: the party, the river, the street, the sound.

Lowercase common noun elements of names in all plural uses: Democratic and Republican parties, Ackley and Messer streets, 154th and 156th avenues southeast. But don't lowercase the common nouns when the form is not plural: She can catch the bus on Third or Fifth Avenue.

Capitalize the proper names of nationalities, peoples, races, tribes and so on: African American, American Indians, Arab, Asian, Jewish, Latino, Muckleshoot, Tulalip, Puyallup. Lowercase black, white, red and so on.

Many organizations adopt specific capitalization guidelines for their governing boards, facilities, job titles and descriptions, organizational structure, and programs, projects and plans. It's efficient to develop styles consistent with a standard, readily available, published reference source.

	committees On first reference, spell out and capitalize the full name of committees: the Neighbourhood Action Committee. Refer to the committee (preferred) or abbreviate on later references (all caps, no periods): NAC. Lowercase committee when it stands alone: The committee voted to endorse the recommendation. See subcommittee, task force.
	facilities Lowercase facilities when the name describes only what the facility does: parking lot, substation. Capitalize proper nouns that are part of the facility's name: Southgate parking lot. See facility. When using part of a facility's name, capitalize only the proper noun. Lowercase the common nouns when shortening the name: Sunset Maintenance Centre, the maintenance centre, the centre.
	job titles and descriptions Consistency is key. Capitalize official job titles when used immediately before a name as part of a name: Finance Department Director Virginia Schwieterman, Accounting Manager Billie Burke, Budget Planner Mary Munchkin, Computer Technician George Bailey, Media Specialist Tim Wright. Lowercase titles when used alone or when set off descriptively from a name by commas, often after a name; when applicable, capitalize only the names of departments, divisions and other groups: Virginia Schwieterman, Finance Department director; Billie Burke, manager of the Accounting Division; Billie Burke, accounting manager; Mary Munchkin, budget planner; George Bailey, computer technician; Tim Wright, media specialist.

·         organizational structure Capitalize the official (proper) names of all organization departments, divisions, sections, offices, units and groups: the Englehart Department of Finance, Accounting Division, Customer Services Section, Property Tax Information Office, Marketing Unit, Documentation Group. Use the whole name on first reference.

For later references, shortened versions of organizational names - without the common nouns department, division, section and so on - are acceptable. Capitalize the "proper" name part of full names when using only that part of the name and dropping the common noun: Finance, Accounting, Customer Services. Don't capitalize those words, however, when describing the general role or work of a group. Also, lowercase the "common" (or generic) name part of the full name when using only that part of the name: the department, the division, the section. Be sure the context makes clear the organizational unit the common name is mentioning. See cities and towns, county, governmental bodies, office.

programs, projects and plans Capitalize the full name of official programs, projects or plans. Otherwise, avoid capitalizing them. Always lowercase program, project or plan when the word stands alone or when using only part of the formal name.

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Myths

For decades and even centuries, respected authorities on writing, reading, editing, grammar and word usage have disputed the following 11 myths and superstitions of writing. Unfortunately, they continue to be taught and followed in education, business, law and government.

Superstitions: "unintelligent applications of an unintelligent dogma." - H.W. Fowler, 1926

Never split an infinitive.

"There is no point in rearranging a sentence just to avoid splitting an infinitive unless it is an awkward one" - Porter G. Perrin, 1965.

Other references: Lounsbury, 1908; Fowler, 1926; Leonard, 1932; Curme, 1947; Evans & Evans, 1957; Lewis, 1961; Bernstein, 1965; Follett, 1966; Skillin, 1974; Gowers, 1988; Johnson, 1991; Stott, 1991; Lauchman, 1993; American Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Strunk & White, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Associated Press, 2002; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.

Never begin a sentence with But or And.

"One cannot help wondering whether those who teach such a monstrous doctrine ever read any English themselves." -- Charles Allen Lloyd, 1938

Other references on and: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Fowler & Gowers, 1965; Follett, 1966; Amis, 1977; Copperud, 1980; Morris & Morris, 1985; Gowers, 1988; Johnson, 1991; Stott, 1991; Burchfield, 1992; American Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.

Other references on but: Baker, 1962; Pence & Emery, 1963; Payne, 1965; Follett, 1966; Amis, 1977; Gowers, 1988; Johnson, 1991; Stott, 1991; American Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.

Never end a sentence with a preposition.

"In English prepositions have been used as terminal words in a sentence since the days of Chaucer, and in that position they are completely idiomatic." - Theodore M. Bernstein, 1971

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Evans & Evans, 1957; Fowler & Gowers, 1965; Skillin, 1974; Gowers, 1988; Stott, 1991; American Heritage, 1996; O'Connor, 1996; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Woods, 2001; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.

Never use "between" with more than two objects.

"Between essentially does apply to only two, but sometimes the 'two' relationship is present when more than two elements are involved." - Theodore M. Bernstein, 1977

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Fowler & Gowers, 1965; Skillin, 1974; Gowers, 1988; OED, 1989; Johnson, 1991; Lederer & Dowis, 1999; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Wallraff, 2000; Strunk & White, 2002; Walsh, 2000; Associated Press, 2002; Bryson, 2002; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003.

Never split a verb phrase.

"Because of their misconception as to what a split infinitive really is, some have reached the erroneous conclusion that an adverbial modifier must never be placed between parts of a compound verb phase ..." - R.W. Pence & D.W. Emery, 1963

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Brown, 1852; Fowler, 1926; Baker, 1938; Partridge, 1942; Bernstein, 1965; Follett, 1966; Skillin, 1974; O'Connor, 1996; Sabin, 1999; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Walsh, 2000; Associated Press, 2002; Bryson, 2002; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003.

Never use contractions.

"Your style will obviously be warmer and truer to your personality if you use contractions like 'I'll' and 'won't' when they fit comfortably into what you're writing." - William Zinsser, 1985

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Flesch, 1967; Ewing, 1974; Stott, 1991; O'Connor, 1996; Sabin, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Garner, 2003.

Never use the first-person pronouns I and me.

If you want to write like a professional just about the first thing you have to do is get used to the first person singular. ... Never mind the superstitious notion that it's immodest to do so. It just isn't so." - Rudolf Flesch, 1958

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; Stott, 1991; Lauchman, 1993; O'Connor, 1999; Trimble, 2000; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003.

Never use since to mean because.

"There is a groundless notion current in both the lower schools and in the world of affairs that since has an exclusive reference to time and therefore cannot be used as a casual conjunction. ... No warrant exists for avoiding this usage, which goes back, beyond Chaucer, to Anglo-Saxon. ..." - Wilson Follett, 1966

Other references: Copperud, 1980; O'Connor, 1996; Walsh, 2000; Chicago, 2003; Garner, 2003; Williams, 2003.

Never begin a sentence with Because.

"So novel and absurd is this superstition that seemingly no authority on writing has countered it in print. It appears to result from concern about fragments." - Bryan A. Garner, 2003

Other references: Lowth, 1782; Bryant, 1947; American Heritage, 1996; Merriam-Webster, 2002; Williams, 2003.

Never write a paragraph containing only a single sentence.

"To interpose a one-sentence paragraph at intervals - at longish intervals - is prudent." - Eric Partridge, 1942

Other references: Hill, 1896; Lauchman, 1993; Lovinger, 2000; Trimble, 2000; Garner, 2003.

Never refer to the reader as you.

"Keep a running conversation with your reader. Use the second-person pronoun whenever you can. Translate everything into your language." - Rudolf Flesch, 1962

Other references: Olson, DeGeorge & Ray, 1985; Trimble, 2000; Garner, 2003.

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Numbers

Spell out most whole numbers below 10. Use figures for 10 and above: five, nine, 15, 650. See cross-references below for exceptions to those guidelines. If you're not already doing so, use the number 1 key on your computer keyboard to create the number 1. Don't use the old-fashioned, potentially odd-looking lowercase L key to create the number l.

In amounts more than a million - unless the exact amount is essential - round off to one decimal point. Write out the word million or billion: The grant was for $6.5 million. Always include the words million, billion or trillion when giving ranges: The project could cost $20 million to $25 million, not $20-$25 million.

When numbers must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect only two-digit numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. Don't use either a hyphen or the word and when spelling out numbers in the hundreds and thousands: fifty-two, fifty-two thousand, fifty-two million, nineteen fifty-two, one hundred fifty-two students, two thousand fifty-two trips, two thousand two.

Also, spell out ordinal numbers first through ninth when they show sequence in time or place: first base, Third Avenue. Exceptions include county, legislative and congressional districts: She lives in the 2nd District.

Most ordinal numbers 10th and above (21st, 215th and so on) are usually not spelled out. When particular ordinals must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect two-digit numbers twenty-first through ninety-ninth: twenty-fifth anniversary.

Avoid beginning a sentence with a number. If unavoidable, spell it out. Also, spell out casual expressions: thanks a million, a thousand bucks.

Avoid following the word for a number with a figure in parentheses for the same number. It's redundant. Avoid: The contract will run out in eight (8) days.

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Plurals

Follow the rules below for forming words to show more than one of the things named:

	For most words, add s: books, guitars. Except when making a plural of single letter, do not add an apostrophe to words or numbers to make them plural.
	Add s to compound words written as single words: cupfuls, handfuls. For compound words that use separate words or link the words with a hyphen, make the most significant word plural: assistant attorneys, attorneys general, daughters-in-law, deputy chiefs of staff.
	Add s to figures: General Motors built the car in the 1940s. The Boeing Co. sold 12 more 767s.
	Don't change the spelling of proper nouns when making them plural. Add es to most proper names ending in es or z: Gonzalezes, Jameses, Joneses, Parkses. Add s to other proper names, including most proper names ending in y even if preceded by a consonant: the Clintons, the Abernathys, not the Abernathies.
	Add es to most words ending in ch, s, sh, ss, x and z: churches, buses, foxes, fuzzes, glasses.
	Change is to es in words ending in is: parentheses, theses.
	Add es to most words ending in o if a consonant precedes o: echoes, heroes. There are exceptions: pianos.
	Words with Latin roots: Change us to i in words ending in us: alumnus, alumni. Change words ending in on to a: phenomenon, phenomena. Add s in most words ending in um: memorandums, referendums but not addenda, curricula, media.
	Avoid using a possessive name as a plural: The free passes are available at four McDonald's restaurants. Not: The free passes are available at four McDonald's.
	Do not use 's when writing about words as words: His speech had too many ifs, ands and buts.
	To avoid confusion, add 's to single letters: Dot your i's. She earned two A's and three B's on her report card. Add s to multiple letters: He knows his ABCs. They have three color TVs.

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Possessives

Follow these rules for forming nouns and pronouns to show possession:

	Add 's to singular nouns not ending in s: the church's members, the girl's parents, Xerox's profits.
	Add 's to singular common nouns ending in s unless the next word begins with s: the bus's engine, the bus' seats, witness's answer, the witness' story.
	Use only an apostrophe for singular proper names ending in s: Drakes' decision. And add only an apostrophe to plural proper names ending in s: the Parkses' home.
	Add 's to plural nouns not ending is s: children's passes, men's bike, women's rights, women's room.
	Add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in s: the girls' books, boys' bike, plants' supervisors, families' cars.
	When a plural noun is possessive but each person "owns" only one item, the item should also be listed in plural form. To confirm correctness, rephrase the possessive relationship as an of phrase: the children's brains or the brains of the children; the teachers' hands or the hands of the teachers.
	Follow the rule above (and its test for correctness) when using plural nouns and possessive pronouns: The children became upset when their mothers left the room or the mothers of the children. Gerry and Lena took their dogs for a walk or the dogs of Gerry and Lena.
	When two or more people jointly own an item, put the apostrophe after the noun closest to the item: Gary and Gina's car (they jointly own car), Gary and Gina's cars (they jointly own more than one car). But when two or more people separately own items, put an apostrophe or an 's after each noun: Gary's and Gina's cars.
	When writing about a family in the plural, add s and then an apostrophe: the Abernathys' Christmas greeting (but Bob Abernathy's Christmas greeting).
	Add only an apostrophe to nouns plural in form, singular in meaning: mathematics' rules, United States' wealth.
	Treat nouns that are the same in singular and plural as plurals, even if the meaning is singular: the two deer's tracks. See collective nouns.

Many pronouns have separate forms for the possessive that don't use an apostrophe: yours, ours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose. Use an apostrophe with a pronoun only when the meaning calls for a contraction: you're (you are), it's (it is). Follow the rules listed above in forming the possessives of other pronouns: another's plan, others' plans, one's rights, someone else's umbrella.

Do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when using the word as an adjective - describing the following noun. If the prepositions for or by would be more appropriate than the possessive of, do not use an apostrophe: a radio band for citizens, citizens band radio; a guide for writers, a writers guide; a day for veterans, Veterans Day; a union for carpenters, a carpenters union. Add 's, however, when a term involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children's hospital. If you're giving the proper name of an organization or other item, try to respect the style it uses - even if that style differs from these guidelines: the Metropolitan Teacher's Association, The World-Class Speller's Guide.

Follow the rules above for possessive words that occur in such phrases as a day's pay, two weeks' vacation, four years' experience, your money's worth.

Avoid excessive personalization of inanimate objects. Use an of construction instead when appropriate: the rules of mathematics instead of mathematics' rules.

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Punctuation

Use common sense. Punctuation should help reading - to make clear the thought being expressed. If punctuation does not help clarify the message, it should not be there.

When more than one punctuation mark (not including quotation marks, parentheses or brackets) could be used at the same place in a sentence, use only the "stronger" - or more necessary - of the two. Question marks and exclamation points, for example, are stronger than commas and periods: "Have all the ballots finally been counted?" asked the reporter. (The question mark fills the role of the comma.) The topic of his speech is "We demand justice now!" (No period following the exclamation point.)

 

Ampersand (&)

Use the ampersand when a company uses it is part of the company's full name. Do not use the ampersand to replace and in other text. The ampersand may be used in tables and abbreviations.

 

Apostrophe (')

This punctuation mark has two main functions: First, it often shows possession: Dan Lindler's appointment. And second, it often marks the omission of letters in contractions and other words or numbers in years and decades: he'll, won't, finger lickin' good, the class of '68, the '90s.

Apostrophes never make a word plural, but they may be used to mark the plural of single letters and abbreviations with internal punctuation: Dot your i's. She got straights A's on her report card, M.A.'s Ph.D.'s. Don't use it in forming plurals of decades: the '70s, the 1980s, not '70's, the 1980's.

 

Brackets ([ ])

Avoid using. Use commas, dashes or parentheses instead. In quotations, however, brackets may be used to show the words in brackets were added or changed by the editor to clarify the meaning. Avoid altering quotations. If a speaker's words are clear and concise, use the full quotation. If cumbersome language can be paraphrased fairly, use an indirect construction. "We strongly disagree with the [Lincoln County] council's decision," she said. Square brackets also may be used occasionally to insert words into a statement that's already enclosed in parentheses.

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Colon (:)

The colon has three main uses, all of which involve pointing the reader toward the words that follow the colon. The colon always follows a whole sentence in these uses. Don't combine a dash and a colon.

The most frequent use is to introduce a list, often after expressions such as the following or as follows: Loretta Schwieterman appointed three people to the committee: David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard. The Parks Department has scheduled open houses in the following communities: Valley View, April 5; Gantry, May 6; and Sierra Hills, Aug. 7.

Don't use a colon immediately after a verb. Incorrect: Loretta Schwieterman appointed: David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard to the committee. Correct: Loretta Schwieterman appointed David Allen, Greg Edwards and Jean Rheinhard to the committee.

Second, the colon can be used to stress the word, words or sentence that follows it: He had only one thing on his mind: flowers. The news was good: No one would be laid off. When used this way, the colon replaces such words as that is, namely and for example. Capitalize the first word after a colon if it is a proper noun or the start of a whole sentence.

Third, use a colon to introduce a quotation longer than one sentence within a paragraph and to end a paragraph that introduces a quotation in the next paragraph. Use a comma, however, to introduce a quotation of one sentence that stays within a paragraph.

Also, use a colon to separate numbers in times (7:15 a.m.), to separate a title and subtitle, and after a business salutation (Dear Mr. Hyde:).

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Comma (,)

The following guidelines treat frequent questions about eight essential uses of the comma.

First, in a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term: She opened the closet, grabbed a coat, and picked up an umbrella. In a complex series of phrases, the serial comma before the final conjunction aids readability. In a simple series, the comma is optional before the conjunction: The van is economical, roomy and dependable. Also, put a comma before the concluding conjunction in a series if an integral element of the series needs a conjunction: He likes jazz, rock, and rhythm and blues. Don't put a comma before the first item in a series or after the and in a series.

Second, use a comma to join two independent clauses with a conjunction. An independent clause is a group of words that could stand on its own as a complete sentence; it begins with its own subject. The most common conjunctions are but, and, for, nor, or, so and yet: The council's Water Resources Committee will go over the resolution Jan. 12, and the full council is scheduled to act Feb. 11. Don't create run-on sentences by combining two or more independent clauses with only commas. Either insert conjunctions after the commas or break the clauses into separate sentences.

Third, use a comma to separate an introductory phrase or clause from the rest of the sentence: After graduating from college, he joined the Peace Corps. It may be omitted after short introductory phrases (less than three words) if no ambiguity would result: On Thursday the Kennewick City Council will decide the issue. When in doubt, use the comma, especially when it separates two capitalized words.

Fourth, enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. Parenthetic expressions are word groups that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. If a parenthetic expression is removed, the sentence would still make sense: The social services manager, who toured the Snoqualmie Valley last week, will make her recommendations today. They took one of their sons, Leif, to the concert. His wife, Donna, is a middle school teacher. As shown in the examples, commas always go both before and after a parenthetic expression within a sentence. If you'd prefer to stress a parenthetic phrase, put it between dashes; you can play down such a phrase by placing it between parentheses.

Also use commas to set off a person's hometown when it follows the name: Rachel Solomon, Danbury, opened a new restaurant. If using a person's age, set it off by commas: Tom O'Rourke, 69, opened a new restaurant.

Do not use commas to set off an essential word or phrase from the rest of a sentence. Essential words and phrases are important to the meaning of a sentence: They took their daughter Jennifer to school. Their son Nils works at Ticketmaster. (They have more than one daughter and more than one son.)

Fifth, use commas to set off words and phrases such as however, meanwhile, in fact, in addition, moreover, nevertheless, as a result, thus, therefore, for example, finally and in other words. Usually, place a comma after such expressions when they begin a sentence, and place commas before and after the expressions when they are within a sentence.

Sixth, use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the adjectives could be rearranged without changing the meaning of a sentence or if the word and could replace the commas without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: A sleek, new car. A thick, black cloud.

Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase: a silver articulated bus.

Seventh, use a comma to set off a direct one-sentence quotation within a paragraph: Theodore Roosevelt said, "It's not the critic who counts." Use a comma before the second quotation mark in a quotation followed by attribution: "No comment," said Jerry Carson.

And eighth, use a comma to separate the parts of numbers, dates and addresses. Use a comma for figures higher than 999: More than 5,000 people attended the event.

Use commas to set off the year in complete dates: The department released its report Nov. 16, 2002, for public review. But don't separate the month from the year when not using a date. They held their first retreat in January 1994.

Use commas to set off cities from names of states or nations: She went to Vancouver, Wash., to tour the bridge retrofit program. He traveled to Paris, France, on vacation.

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Dash (—)

Long dashes, called em dashes, have three main uses. In these uses, em dashes are usually less formal but more emphatic substitutes for other typical punctuation marks. To preserve the impact of dashes, avoid overusing them.

First, use an em dash to explain, justify or stress in the second part of a sentence something in the first part: Fans filled all the seats - the concert hall was packed! The new shopping mall will open Tuesday - if the air-conditioning works. The project was finished on time, within scope - and under budget. The manager was new to the agency - brand new.

Second, use a pair of em dashes to make an emphatic pause or abrupt, parenthetic change in thought within a sentence: The new auditorium - opening six months behind schedule - is getting praise from both critics and audiences. If you'd prefer to play down such a phrase, consider placing it between parentheses instead, or between commas.

Third, use a pair of em dashes to set off a phrase that has a series of words separated by commas: Leif Hansen described the qualities - intelligence, initiative and assertiveness - he wants in a supervisor.

As shown in the examples above, do not put a space before or after an em dash (an exception to the rule followed by the Associated Press for newspaper use). Avoid using more than one pair of em dashes in a sentence.

A short dash, called en dash, may be used to mean up to and including when placed between numbers, times, dates and other uses that show range: 1993-96, $25-50, $432,000-$560,000 (but $25 million to $50 million), 55-65 years, 2:30-4 p.m. (but 9 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.), ages 15-20, pages 167-78. It also may be used to replace to and versus in capitalized names: the Chicago-New Orleans train, the Huskies-Cougars game. Do not put spaces before and after the en dash. See between ... and, from ... to, dates, ranges.

Note: A hyphen (-) is not a dash. Most current word processing and design software can create em dashes and en dashes. If not possible, use two hyphens to create an em dash, and substitute a hyphen for an en dash. In Microsoft Word, if you don't space after the second hyphen, the two hyphens become an em dash.

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Ellipsis ( ... )

Avoid. An ellipsis is usually used to show the deletion of one or more words in condensing quotations, texts and documents. It also shows hesitation or trailing off in a quotation: "I wonder what I will say after we ..."

Treat an ellipsis as a three-letter word, with three periods and a space on each end. Some software can create an ellipsis that can replace three separate periods.

 

Exclamation Point (!)

Use sparingly and only to express a high degree of surprise, disbelief or other strong emotion. The exclamation point goes within the quotation marks when it applies to the quoted matter only.

F. Scott Fitzgerald: "Cut out all those exclamation marks. An exclamation mark is like laughing at your own joke."

 

Hyphen (-)

Hyphens are joiners. They link words. Use a hyphen to avoid ambiguity or to form a single idea from two or more words: She recovered her health. She re-covered the torn seat. He is a small-business man. He is a foreign-car dealer. Unclear: He is a small businessman. He is a foreign car dealer. Also see guidelines at composition titles, compound words, initial-based terms, race.

Do not hyphenate most compound nouns - two or more words that work together as a noun: Pilot testing is scheduled to begin in May. But consult this style manual or your dictionary for preferred or commonly excepted terms: president-elect, sister-in-law, good-for-nothing.

To avoid ambiguity, use hyphens to link words in compound adjectives (or compound modifiers) before nouns. If you can insert and between the modifying words before a noun and make sense of the new construction, you do not have a compound adjective: And would make sense in a sunny, warm day; sunny, warm is not a compound modifier. But and would not work in a well-rounded employee; well-rounded is a compound modifier. Another test: If your sentence would make sense if you reversed the order of the modifying words or even eliminated one of them, don't connect the words with a hyphen.

If two or more consecutive words make sense only when understood together as a single idea modifying a noun that follows, hyphenate that compound adjective: a well-prepared plan, special-interest money, high-frequency sounds, minimum-height requirement, used-record store, 250-square-mile area, 5-ton truck, short-term solution, little-known man, better-qualified woman, long-range plan, know-it-all attitude, pilot-testing schedule.

Leave out hyphens in compound modifiers only when no reader confusion would result from their omission - or if the modifying words are commonly considered as a unit: post office box, high school classes. If necessary, rewrite sentences to avoid stringing together a long, potentially confusing series of modifying adverbs and adjectives before nouns.

Hyphens are unnecessary after already, most, least, less and very and after all adverbs that end in ly: already named manager, most used service, less expensive project, least liked alternative, a very good time, an easily remembered rule, randomly selected addresses. See comma, very.

Do not hyphenate most compound modifiers if they occur after the noun being modified, even if hyphenating them before the noun: The plan was well prepared. The man was little known. The woman was better qualified. His boat is 42 feet long, but He has a 42-foot-long boat.

Here's the form for suspensive hyphenation: The students recommended a 15- to 20-minute break between third and fourth periods.

Hyphenate co- when forming nouns, adjectives or verbs that show occupation or status: co-pilot, co-chairman, co-worker. See prefixes and suffixes and separate entries for the most often used prefixes and suffixes.

A hyphen is not a dash. For example, this organization mail stop, KSC-TR-0824, has hyphens, not dashes.

A hyphen may be used to divide a word at the end of a line, especially to remove large gaps at the end of an adjacent line. Here are some guidelines for hyphenation to aid readability and reduce reader confusion:

	Divide words only between syllables, but don't add a hyphen to a word or phrase that already has a hyphen, such as decision-maker or re-election. Instead, break the word or phrase at the existing hyphen.
	Avoid ending more than two consecutive lines with hyphens.
	Don't hyphenate a word at the end of a line unless you can leave a syllable of at least three characters on both the first and second lines. Avoid dividing words with fewer than six letters.
	Don't divide the last word in a line when the second part of the word would be the only "word" on the second line.
	Don't hyphenate abbreviations, contractions and numbers. Also, don't hyphenate words in headlines and headings.
	Avoid hyphenating proper nouns.
	Don't hyphenate words that jump from one page to another page.
	Avoid hyphenating words that jump from one column to another column or that jump over a graphic image or photo.

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Parentheses ( )

Parentheses may be used to surround words, phrases or even whole sentences that are relatively unimportant to the main text. But they can distract the reader from your main point. Think about deleting the unimportant text. If a sentence must contain incidental information, setting off the information with a pair of commas or a pair of dashes may be more effective. Also try placing the extra information in a separate sentence - with no parentheses.

Parenthesis marks always come in twos, one opening and one closing ( ). Don't use one without the other, including if they're used in numbered or alphabetized lists.

Place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment). If a parenthetical sentence (here is one example) is part of a sentence, don't capitalize the first word or end the parenthetical sentence with a period. But if the parenthetical sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation point, put a period after the closing parenthesis (here's another example!). If the material in the parentheses is an independent sentence, capitalize the first word and place the period before the closing parenthesis. (Here is an example.)

 

Period (.)

This punctuation mark has two main purposes. It ends all sentences that are not questions or exclamations, and it's used in some abbreviations.

Use periods to break up complicated sentences into two or more readable sentences. "There's not much to be said about the period except that most writers don't reach it soon enough." William Zinsser, On Writing Well: An Informal Guide to Writing Nonfiction, 1980. See sentence length.

Use a period, not a question mark, after an indirect question: He asked what the score was.

Don't put a space between two initials: T.S. Eliot.

Use periods after numbers or letters in listing elements of a summary: 1. Wash the car. 2. Clean the basement. Or: A. Punctuate properly. B. Write simply.

Periods always go inside quotation marks.

Put only one space after a period (and other sentence-ending punctuation, including colons).

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Question Mark (?)

Direct questions always take question marks: Who is going with you? Did he ask you if you were going? Indirect questions never take question marks: He would like to know who's going with you. For multiple questions, either use a single question mark at the end of the complete sentence: Did she plan the project, manage the budget and supervise the staff? Or stress each element by breaking up the sentence: Did she plan the project? Manage the budget? Supervise the staff? Put only one space after a question mark (and other sentence-ending punctuation).

The question mark replaces the comma normally used when attributing a quotation: "Who is going?" she asked. The question mark may go inside or outside quotation marks depending on the meaning: Who wrote "Everybody's Got Something to Hide Except Me and My Monkey"? She asked, "How long will it take?" Also, use a single question mark, inside the quotation mark, in sentences like this: Did you hear him say, "Who wrote all the reports?"

 

Quotation Marks (" ")

Put quotation marks around direct quotations: "No comment," he said. She said, "Report to work on time." If a full paragraph of quoted material precedes another paragraph that continues the quotation, do not put quotation marks after the first paragraph. But do put quotation marks before the second paragraph.

Put quotation marks around words used ironically or unfamiliar terms used on first reference: The "tycoon" turned out to be a pauper. But avoid putting single words or terms in quotation marks to draw attention to them as slang, informal or cute.

Avoid fragmented quotations. Do not use quotation marks to report a few ordinary words used by a speaker or writer.

Don't put the words of one person into the mouths of many: Witnesses at the accident said there was "a tremendous bang, and then all hell broke loose."

Quotations within quotations: Use single quotation marks for passages contained within a direct quotation ("She said, 'Ouch!'").

Punctuation: The period and comma always go within the quotation marks. The dash, question mark and exclamation point go within the quotation marks when they apply to the quoted matter only. Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks.

In headlines, use single quotation marks: Man cries 'Fire!' in theater, causes panic

 

Semicolon (;)

The semicolon has three main uses, although the first use below is the most common. The semicolon shows a greater separation of thought and information than a comma but less separation than a period.

First, use semicolons to separate parts of a series when at least one item in the series also has a comma. A semicolon also goes before the final and in such a series: Attending were Tina Lopez, 223 Main St.; Ron Larson, 1414 Broadway; and Robert Zimmerman, 1976 E. Pine St.

The following two uses can add variety, eliminate a word or two, and closely link contrasting or related ideas. But breaking a long sentence with a semicolon into two or more shorter sentences can aid readability and clarity.

Second, use a semicolon to link two (or more) closely related statements that could stand alone as independent sentences (or clauses): The train arrived on time; the passengers were overjoyed. If a coordinating conjunction such as and, but or or separates the two independent clauses, a comma would replace the semicolon: The bus arrived on time, and the passengers were overjoyed.

Third, use a semicolon between two independent clauses when the second clause begins with transition words such as therefore, however, thus and for example: The department had planned to drop the service; however, overwhelming customer demand persuaded officials to keep it.

Place semicolons outside quotation marks. Put only one space after a semicolon.

 

Virgule (/)

Avoid using the virgule - also called a slash, forward slash, diagonal or slant - to stand for omitted words or letters. Examples include per in 40,000 tons/year, to in price/earnings ratio, or in his/her and oral/written tests, versus in parent/child issues, with in table/mirror, w/o for without and c/o for in care of. The virgule may replace and in some compound terms: the Vancouver/Portland area, the May/June issue, an innovative classroom/laboratory. Using and, however, may be less ambiguous. When using the virgule, don't separate the punctuation mark from adjacent words or numbers with spaces.

The virgule may be used to separate the elements of dates and the numerator from the denominator in numbers containing fractions.

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Spelling

Frequently misspelled words are listed alphabetically throughout this style manual. Also listed are preferred spellings for words with more than one possible spelling. Based in the United States, this manual prefers American spellings to British spellings, except for names of British publications and organizations.

For spelling and definitions not covered in this manual, check a dictionary. If two (or more) spellings are listed, use the first one unless this manual lists a specific exception. If your dictionary provides different spellings in separate entries (gray and grey, for example) use the spelling followed by a full definition (gray). If a dictionary entry is listed as usually or often, use that entry.

Use computerized spelling checkers carefully; they don't catch mistyped words that are spelled correctly - not instead of now--or words that sound alike but are spelled differently - too, two, to.

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